Rrounding medium. It should be mentioned that the textiles were also tested after a year of storage at room temperature in the dark with the same results. It indicates the long-term photovirucidal efficiency of the both textiles. Alternatively, an inhibition effect was found in aqueous solutions of sulfonated analogue TPPS that have the similar quantum yield of O2(1Dg) as TPP [19] (Fig. 8). The concentration of TPPS above 0.005 entirely inhibited both viruses. At 0.001 TPPS, the infectivity of the mouse polyomavirus was one order of magnitude lower, while the baculovirus was more resistant as its infectivity decreased to approximately 65 .Figure 4. PhotoGracillin oxidation ability of the TPP-doped nanofiber textile. Photodegradation of AMA during 10 min of irradiation of 3 ml of 1024 mol l21 AMA containing a piece of the nanofiber textile doped with TPP (1 cm2). The arrows indicate the course of photooxidation. Irradiation was performed using white light from a stabilized 300 W Xe lamp with an optical cut-off filter (l 400 nm) at 22uC in air-saturated 0.02 mol l21 phosphate buffer, pH = 7.0. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049226.gDiscussionSinglet oxygen generated in close proximity to living eukaryotic or bacterial cells has been shown to have strong cytotoxic effects [34]. It is well established that the main targets of O2(1Dg) are cytoplasmic membrane proteins. Integrated proteins that cross the lipid bilayer (with major portions exposed on the cell surface) andVirucidal Nanofiber TextilesFigure 5. Inactivation of the mouse polyomavirus on the surface of TPP-doped TecophilicH nanofiber textile. Cells infected with polyomavirus eluate from the surface of the nanofiber textile after 30 minutes of irradiation (a, b, c) or without irradiation (d). Cells infected with control polyomavirus eluate from the surface of the textile without TPP after 30 minutes of irradiation (e) or without irradiation (f). Cells infected with the same amount of the virus in the absence of the textile after 30 minutes of irradiation (g) or without irradiation (h). Non-infected cells (i). Detection of the LT antigen (green) in the nuclei of infected cells. To visualize cell nuclei, DNA was stained with DAPI (blue). Representative images are shown with the bar of 20 mm at the right corner. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049226.gperipheral proteins associated with the cell surface have important, often indispensable physiological functions (for instance, acting as protein receptors, pumps, channels or enzymes), and damaging these proteins quickly leads to cell death. Exposure of proteins to O2(1Dg) can result in oxidation of side-chains, formation of crosslinked/aggregated species, protein unfolding or conformational changes. Aromatic amino acids (tryptophan, tyrosine and histidine) and sulphur-containing amino acids (methionine, cysteine and cystine) are HIF-2��-IN-1 web direct targets of O2(1Dg) [35]. Other O2(1Dg) targets include unsaturated lipids in the cytoplasmic membrane, which can be oxidized to form lipid hydroperoxides. Oxidation of cholesterol by O2(1Dg) results in the formation of a number of readily distinguishable oxidation products, especially hydroperoxides [36]. Enveloped viruses possess a lipid bilayer envelope derived from cellular membranes and embedded with viral proteins. These viral surface proteins are often glycosylated and play a crucial role in cell receptor recognition and viral entry into host cells. Therefore, enveloped viruses might be affected by O2(1Dg) in a manner.Rrounding medium. It should be mentioned that the textiles were also tested after a year of storage at room temperature in the dark with the same results. It indicates the long-term photovirucidal efficiency of the both textiles. Alternatively, an inhibition effect was found in aqueous solutions of sulfonated analogue TPPS that have the similar quantum yield of O2(1Dg) as TPP [19] (Fig. 8). The concentration of TPPS above 0.005 entirely inhibited both viruses. At 0.001 TPPS, the infectivity of the mouse polyomavirus was one order of magnitude lower, while the baculovirus was more resistant as its infectivity decreased to approximately 65 .Figure 4. Photooxidation ability of the TPP-doped nanofiber textile. Photodegradation of AMA during 10 min of irradiation of 3 ml of 1024 mol l21 AMA containing a piece of the nanofiber textile doped with TPP (1 cm2). The arrows indicate the course of photooxidation. Irradiation was performed using white light from a stabilized 300 W Xe lamp with an optical cut-off filter (l 400 nm) at 22uC in air-saturated 0.02 mol l21 phosphate buffer, pH = 7.0. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049226.gDiscussionSinglet oxygen generated in close proximity to living eukaryotic or bacterial cells has been shown to have strong cytotoxic effects [34]. It is well established that the main targets of O2(1Dg) are cytoplasmic membrane proteins. Integrated proteins that cross the lipid bilayer (with major portions exposed on the cell surface) andVirucidal Nanofiber TextilesFigure 5. Inactivation of the mouse polyomavirus on the surface of TPP-doped TecophilicH nanofiber textile. Cells infected with polyomavirus eluate from the surface of the nanofiber textile after 30 minutes of irradiation (a, b, c) or without irradiation (d). Cells infected with control polyomavirus eluate from the surface of the textile without TPP after 30 minutes of irradiation (e) or without irradiation (f). Cells infected with the same amount of the virus in the absence of the textile after 30 minutes of irradiation (g) or without irradiation (h). Non-infected cells (i). Detection of the LT antigen (green) in the nuclei of infected cells. To visualize cell nuclei, DNA was stained with DAPI (blue). Representative images are shown with the bar of 20 mm at the right corner. doi:10.1371/journal.pone.0049226.gperipheral proteins associated with the cell surface have important, often indispensable physiological functions (for instance, acting as protein receptors, pumps, channels or enzymes), and damaging these proteins quickly leads to cell death. Exposure of proteins to O2(1Dg) can result in oxidation of side-chains, formation of crosslinked/aggregated species, protein unfolding or conformational changes. Aromatic amino acids (tryptophan, tyrosine and histidine) and sulphur-containing amino acids (methionine, cysteine and cystine) are direct targets of O2(1Dg) [35]. Other O2(1Dg) targets include unsaturated lipids in the cytoplasmic membrane, which can be oxidized to form lipid hydroperoxides. Oxidation of cholesterol by O2(1Dg) results in the formation of a number of readily distinguishable oxidation products, especially hydroperoxides [36]. Enveloped viruses possess a lipid bilayer envelope derived from cellular membranes and embedded with viral proteins. These viral surface proteins are often glycosylated and play a crucial role in cell receptor recognition and viral entry into host cells. Therefore, enveloped viruses might be affected by O2(1Dg) in a manner.
